Caribou and reindeer classified as one species. In North America the Barren ground caribou consists of 4 subspecies the woodland caribou consists of 1 subspecies.

The Barren ground caribou inhabit the open tundra of Alaska and N. Canada, consist of large herds (thousands) and perform extensive seasonal migrations. Herd sizes fluctuate seasonally, dividing up into small groups and spreading over the tundra in summer, congretating into large groups for fall migrations. The Woodland caribou generally inhabit the Taiga and Boreal forest, consist of smaller groups (dozens, or mere hundreds) and perform seasonal shifts of habitat rather than long migrations of hundreds of miles. The woodland caribou is the largest of the present day subspecies. There may have been 3-5 mill. caribou in NA in presettlement times, about 1 million today.

Mature woodland bulls weigh 300-600 lbs, cows 150 to 250.

BOTH SEXES BEAR ANTLERS, although bull antlers are larger, and cows of E. Canada often are antlerless. Bulls and non-pregnant cows drop the antlers after the breeding season, pregnant cows retain them until calving. Bull dominance hierarchy in rut. (Woodland bulls may gather loose harems)

Cows usually can bear young at 3+ years (long maturation), and seldom produce twins. SYNCHRONOUS ESTRUS. Pheromone in cows urine stimulates others. Results in short calving period.

Natural mortality factors may be high- wolves, lynx, bears, accidents. Low allowable harvest (5%) Barrenground caribou have been subject to high hunting mortality (Native Americans and whites also- subsistance- Replacement of dog teams by snowmobiles MAY help). In Alaska, wolves are being controlled in a few districts to reduce mortality on hunted populations of caribou. This practice is controversial, but does result in higher caribou population.

Caribou adaptations to cold include the heavy winter pelage, specialized circulation in the distal portion of the limbs to warm the returning blood (proximity of arteries), and specialized nutrition. The only cervid that can SUBSIST on lichens in winter (although deer can utilize them). Lichens are low in protein, but high in carbohydrates. Caribou rumen bacteria ferments the carbos, producing ammonia, which aids in recycling nitrogen, thus compensating for low protein. In summer, Caribou utilize a wide variety of vegetation- grasses, sedges, forbs and browse.

Caribou hoof is wide, and dew claws are large. Pad under hoof thickens in summer for support on muskeg, but thins out in winter making hoof sharp edged for ice traction.

Caribou once inhabited N. US (Maine until 1900's). Habitat change (both man-induced by logging, and possibly climatic rplacing boreal forest with hardwood and pine) favored deer, which carries brainworm (Paralaphostrongylus tenuis), fatal to moose and caribou.

Caribou Reintroductions-- Several attempts have been made in various areas, mixed results. Some successes have occured where there never were deer, and predators were non-existant (islands).

Introductions where there are or have been deer, or where predators are abundant, have generally not done well. Caribou were reintroduced in Maine in 1960's and 80's. All scattered and disappeared or succomed to brainworm and bears.

Difficult situation. You must have enough animals to FIND each other to reproduce. A "critical mass" so to speak.

• ELK Cervus canadensis

Also called Wapiti.

4 subspecies presently:.

(C.c.canadensis) Rocky Mt. elk. Most widely distributed throughout Rockies from B.C. to W. Texas;

(C.c Roosevelti) Olympic elk of Pacific NW;

(C.c manitobensis)--Manitoba elk of that region;

(C.c. nannodes)-- Tule or dwarf elk of NE Cal/W.Nev.

Largest are Olympic elk with bull up to 1100 lbs., smallest are the Tule elk with bulls up to 400 lbs.

Elk have a short rounded canine tooth in the upper jaw that is the well known "elk tooth", "bugler" or "tusk" once as prized as antlers. Elk were killed for the teeth at one time. Antlers are very large and prized by hunters.

Bulls gather a harem of up to 25 cows in the fall, and may defend a territory (.5 - 1 sq mi) around them. Yearling bulls are tolerated with cows, but mature bulls are not. Dominance hierarchy (primary, secondary...)

Bull harvest/cow protection is typical. In sustained yield management managers usually try to keep a breeding season (prehunt) adult sex ratio of ABOUT 40 bulls/100 cows, and control the harvest to achieve a post hunt adult sex ratio of about 15 bulls/100 cows (Yearlings becoming mature in coming year will restore the desired prehunt ratio again). Cows may breed as yearlings if in very good condition, but most breed as 2 year-olds. Twinning is rare.

Rocky mountain elk are quite migratory, high elevations in summer, lower elevations in winter. Consume more grass than most other Cervids, thus can compete with cattle. A considerable portion of their summer range is on National Forest while in winter most will be on private ranches. USFWS maintains a very large elk winter refuge in Jackson Hole, Wyo. to feed up to 15,000 wintering elk ( Much of the traditional winter range there is now cattle ranches). Various states also maintain wintering areas where hay is grown and harvested for elk to keep them off private lands.

Clearcutting in Rockies has decreased usable habitat and logging roads have allowed to much access by hunters (1 mile rule of thumb).